Margaret Mary Raftery

Department of English & Classical Culture,

University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa

This paper focuses on the nature of the dramatic and the theological "incarnation" of evil in the rederijker drama Mariken van Nieumeghen (c.1515; NK 1089). It approaches this "incarnation" as an inversion of the Incarnation of Christ – the true Logos, or Word, made Flesh – who brings Salvation. In this context, the inextricable interconnection of the Incarnation with Creation and Salvation, as well as with the Church's instruments such as the sacraments, is a key concept. The Catholic Encyclopaedia (IV:475) explains:

The introductory section of this study will thus outline the orthodox theological position on the Incarnation. This will be followed by a contrasting survey of the orthodox position on the origin and nature of the demonic.

The inversion would appear to be a conscious application of the topos of the dichotomy of Good and Evil on the part of the author(s), as this paper will attempt to show by a consideration of the information which devil characters such as Moenen provide about their human "disguises". That this inversion is more than coincidental or clichéd is also suggested by the use of the technique in the structuring of the play, with Mariken's initiation into the world of evil being accomplished by means of a series of inversions of the sacraments of the Catholic Church. These related inversions will be identified in the discussion of the demonic "incarnation" and modus operandi.

The final part of the paper will pay attention to some of the issues of power attendant upon the dichotomy of inversion thus identified between the forces active in the play. Traditionally, Lucifer's "word" – "Non serviam!" – transformed a portion of the angelic host, by a calamitous fall, into their own inversion : devils, thus demonstrating the power of a word to perform Evil and ultimately, after the temptation and fall of humanity, necessitating the Incarnation of Christ, the Divine Logos, to perform Good in bringing redemption and salvation for God's creation. In dramatic representation, of course, the power of the word is all the greater, since it is made visible, almost tangible, to the audience in performance.

In Mariken van Nieumeghen the issue of power is highly relevant : for instance, certain words, or names, in daily life are presented as powerful, for example in prayer or in exorcism (or, indeed, in rhetoric) and the full force of the eschatological powers of Good and Evil is displayed, with the former always ultimately triumphing. Perhaps most interesting of all to a modern audience is the issue of gendered power within the this-worldly representation of that eschatology, where both Good (the Church) and Evil are, ironically, male-identified, while the focus of their conflict, Mariken herself, is female. These issues of power will be outlined.

The word "Incarnation" is used to signify the mystery and dogma of the Word (Logos) made Flesh (CE VII 706a). The derivation of the Latin incarnatio (caro = flesh) is based on the Greek of John 1:14 : "And the word was made flesh". The terms are used by the Greek and Latin Fathers from the second and the fourth centuries, respectively. The Biblical use of the word "flesh" is a synechdoche for "human nature" (cf. Luke 3:6, Romans 3:20) which emphasises the weaker part of that nature. Hence, in his Incarnation, Christ took on a nature capable of suffering, sickness and death, becoming like humanity in all things except sin (CE VII 706a).

Dogmatically, thus, Christ is in his Incarnation both human and divine. His divinity is revealed in the Old Testament by the Psalms (notably 2:7, 54:7 & 8, and 104:1), as well as by the Sapiential books and the Prophets. The Old Testament Logos is, from pre-Mosaic times, both uncreated and creating (CE VII 707a). It becomes associated with Wisdom in the Sapiential books. Isaiah (cf 7:14 and 9:6) gives the Christ the name "Emmanuel", which Matthew (1:23) interprets as "God with us". In the New Testament, all the evangelists as well as St Paul bear witness to Christ's divinity. He is the divine Messiah, the Son of God, and he is God (of the same nature and substance as God the Father). The third source of evidence to Christ's divinity is the tradition of the early Church. In the second century both Pliny and Hadrian describe the early Christians as adoring Christ as God, while Celsus castigates them for the notion of a "God made man" (CE VII 711b).

Christ's dual nature – a hypostatic union of the human and the divine, meaning that God is Man and Man is God in the one Person of Jesus Christ – is, like all the mysteries of the Church, a complicated and perplexing concept, and was hence more prone to heretical deviation than simpler concepts. Indeed, the very first general council of the Church, the Council of Nicaea (325), had to be called to combat just such a heresy (that of Arius) by defining the divinity of Christ (CE VII 711b). The Nicene Creed states: "We believe ... in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Only-begotten, generated of the Father, that is, of the substance of the Father, God of God, Light of Light, True God of True God; begotten not created, consubstantial with the Father, through him all things were made ...".

The dogmatic concept of the fully human nature of Christ proved equally problematic. The Gnostics denied Christ a material body, since they held matter to be inherently evil; Valentinus and other denied that Christ was born of Mary, and the Apollinarists denied him a human soul (CE VII 712a). The Church bases its certainty on this point mainly on the Aramaic title "Son of Man", which occurs some eighty times in the Gospels and was Christ's own chosen reference to himself. The heresies mentioned, as well as variations on and developments of them, were all officially condemned. The Council of Chalcedon (451) defined that Jesus Christ remained, after the Incarnation, "perfect in Divinity and perfect in humanity ... consubstantial with the Father according to his divinity, consubstantial with us according to his humanity ... one and the same Christ, the Son, the Lord, the Only begotten, to be acknowledged in two natures not intermingled, not changed, not divisible, not separable" (CE VII 714a). The third Council of Constantinople (680) defined (against the Monothelites) that in Christ there were two natural wills and two natural activities, the divine and the human, and that the human will was not contrary to the divine, but perfectly subject to it (CE VII 714a). The historic Council of Trent (1545-63), belatedly taking up the challenges of Protestant reformers to the Mass and the eucharist, in particular, also confirmed the earlier councils' statements on the Incarnation.

Before moving to a consideration of the origin and nature of the demonic, it is important to note that while the Church sees Christ, by his own description and that of his Father at his baptism, as the Son of God by his own nature, the angels, by contrast, are the children of God only by adoption; they participate in the Father's nature only by the free gifts he has bestowed upon them (CE VII 710b). Unlike the Son, the true offspring of the Father, the angels are not adored.

Indeed, one of the more generally accepted interpretations among the theologians, including Thomas Aquinas, attributed the fall of Lucifer and his angels to the deadly sin of Pride (superbia): to his desire to be adored and to their refusal to serve humanity (1 Cor 6:3) as they would have to in view of the privileged position which the Incarnation would give to humankind (CE IV 765a): those who accepted salvation through Christ would be destined to share in his divine sonship (1 Jn 3:1-2; Rom 8:14-17; Hinwood 1983:65).

The main sources relating to the devil are the Bible, the apocryphal books, certain other Jewish texts written between the two testaments under the influence of the Canaanite and Persian religions (Hinwood 1983:64), and the works of the Church Fathers. The Old Testament makes little mention of the devil, its older books in particular regarding all events as the work of God. Genesis (3:1-4) names the serpent in the temptation scene, but the identification of the serpent with the devil is found in later books, particularly Revelations. The fall of the angels is referred to by Christ in Luke 10:18 : "I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven", and described (with prophetic as well as retrospective significance) in Revelations 12:3-10. The two classic texts lamenting the kings of Babylon and Tyre (Isaiah 14:12-15 and Ezechiel 28:12-15) were also interpreted as referring to the fall of the angels.

The Church's belief on the nature and origin of devils and demons is encapsulated in the creed of the Fourth Lateran Council (1215). The situation of this explanation within the context of the Creation does not only describe the demonic as a perversion of original good but also, in using the terminology of "essence", "substance" and "nature", inscribes it as an inversion of the Incarnation: "We firmly believe and confess without reservation that there is only one true God ... the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit; three persons but one essence, substance, or nature ... the one principle of the universe, the Creator of all things, visible and invisible ... The devil and other demons were indeed created by God naturally good, but they became evil by their own doing" (CE IV 764a; Hinwood 1980:29-30).

The fall of the angels did not impair their natural powers, gifts, or superior intelligence (CE IV 766d). The chief devil, variously identified as Lucifer ("light-bearer", or morning star) or Satan ("accuser" or "adversary"), is thus the doughty, though doomed, opponent of God as well as a potent and dangerous tempter, accuser, and tormenter of humanity. He is described by Christ as the overlord of this world (John 14:30; Ephesians 2:1-2), though this is only by outward government, unlike Christ's own headship of the Church by his inward life-giving influence. The devil's mundane sovereignty is proclaimed to be overthrown by Christ's Incarnation and Passion (John 12:31; 16:11). He is able to attack the human body and mind from without (obsession) or from within (possession). Yet despite the great power of the devil and his demons, they are permitted to operate only within limits set by God, and even the strongest of them cannot help but acknowledge Christ.

There are two devil characters in Mariken van Nieumeghen; however, the role of Masscheroen in the play-within-the-play is brief, circumscribed and stylised: that of a devil claiming the souls of humankind in the court of Heaven, and losing his case to the advocate for the defence, Our Lady. Within the world and "reality" of the drama he is not actually a devil, but a pageant actor playing the role of a devil. Hence it is on Moenen, the "real" devil within the dramatic world, that this discussion will focus. Unlike many of the devils in late-medieval dramas, Moenen is a central character, and a more than worthy antagonist for Mariken as he initiates her into the world and the power of evil.

Moenen first makes his appearance to Mariken as she sits, in despair, under a hedge outside the town of Nijmegen, lamenting her "accursed" state and even contemplating suicide. In a monologue addressed to the audience, he explains:

Ick hebbe mi selven toeghemaect rechtveerdich

Al waer ick een mensche, ende al bi Gods ghedooghe;

Tes al te passe sonder mijn een oghe.

Die is of si mi uut waer ghesworen;

Wi gheesten en hebben dye macht niet, dats verloren,

Ons te volmakenne doer gheen bespreck.

Altoos es aen ons eenich ghebreck,

Tsi aen thoot, aen handen oft aen voeten. [158-165]

In this speech, as in others through the play, Moenen emphasises for the benefit of the audience that although his appearance is human, his nature and substance are spiritual ("gheest") – in his case, demonic. He has "disguised" himself as a human being ("toeghemaect" suggests both concealment and covering, as with flesh in an "incarnation") but, unlike Christ, he is unable to take on human nature and shape flawlessly: the devil, it was believed, would always reveal his demonic nature by a flaw in his disguise, whether on his head, his hands or his feet. In Moenen's case he is one-eyed. He presents himself as "een meester vol consten" [196], which is generally taken to mean a university scholar, and offers to teach Mariken the "seven liberal arts" as well as the languages of the world – though the "arts" which they will eventually demonstrate are debased. His offer to make her "der vrouwen vrauwe" [182] - a woman above all other women - may be read as a blasphemous inversion of the effect of Christ's Incarnation upon Our Lady. His presentation of himself as a courtly cavalier ("een goet knecht" [172]), ready to avenge any wrong done to Mariken, echoes the topos of Christ as the true lover-knight, riding his Cross as a steed and fighting for the salvation of the souls of humanity from the devil and damnation. This inversion is confirmed when Moenen admits in the final aside of the scene that his real objective is the damnation of Mariken's soul ("Maer ten eynde hope ick salder u siele bliven" [328]).

Apart from expecting sexual favours, Moenen also makes two crucial demands of Mariken, the first being that she give up her name (which is a diminutive form of Mary). As Moenen says, in a scarcely veiled reference to Our Lady's role as Theotokos in Christ's Incarnation, "Bi eender Marien ic ende mijn geselscap sulc grief hebben, / Dat wi nemmermeer dien naem en sullen lief hebben" [275-276]. Mariken demurs, but eventually Moenen hits on the compromise of allowing her to retain the initial "M" and be known as "Emmeken" (literally, "little M"). This renaming amounts to a demonic inversion of the first of the sacraments of the Catholic Church : baptism. Baptism is the first and most crucial step in the process of Christian initiation and salvation. By baptism, one becomes a child of God, a member of Christ and the Christian community, and a temple of the Holy Spirit (Hinwood 1983:89). By contrast, Moenen's demonic rebaptism of Mariken initiates her into the world and the power of evil, a world in which the "father" is Lucifer himself, she is united in a pact with a devil, her destined community is in hell, and her earthly body is a "temple" of all kinds of sin.

Moenen's second demand is that Mariken refrain from blessing herself with the Sign of the Cross. This sign is not only the prelude to all prayer, including the Mass and the sacraments, but also the symbol of salvation and a powerful instrument in exorcism, as are the Holy Names, including that of Our Lady. Moenen clearly fears God and these powers for good. Indeed, in another "aside" intended to emphasise his demonic nature, even when stating explicitly that he operates only within the limits allowed to him by God, he avoids naming the Almighty:

Maer dat ic veel scicke oft coute,

Tes al niet, en mi die Opperst warachtich

Gheen volle consent en gheeft eendrachtich:

Boven hem en ben ic niet een haer te verwerven machtich.

Once Mariken has reluctantly consented to be his paramour, Moenen takes her first to Hertogenbosch and then to Antwerp. At the inn, the "Gulden Boom", he makes use of her new-found talents, which may be seen as an inversion of the "gifts" of the Holy Spirit in the sacrament of Confirmation – a sacrament which also involves a renaming, though as a reinforcement of the identity conferred by baptism, strengthening the Christian in order that he or she may take part actively in the ministry of the Church, be an active witness to Christ in the world, and defend his truth by word and deed (Hinwood 1980:67). A soliloquy informs the audience that Moenen's intention with Mariken is to draw crowds, sow disunity, and provoke murder, thus bringing many thousands of souls to damnation. Again, this is in direct contrast with Christ who, in his Incarnation as man, himself undergoes death in order to ensure eternal life for the souls of humanity. The maleficent human dynamic which Moenen creates may also be seen as a demonic inversion of the sacrament of the Eucharist, where a community gathers in harmony to give thanks for Christ's having offered himself for humanity's reconcilation with God.

One of Moenen's other practices in Antwerp is to present himself as a doctor (in which guise he gives women sexual counselling which proves fatal to their husbands within eight days – a radical inversion of the ideal relationship within the sacrament of marriage!) and a fortune-teller. In describing himself as a doctor, he uses the obscene term "kijcpisse" [578] - "piss checker" - which would appear to be intended as a demonic inversion of the topos of Christ as the Divine Physician, or "doctor" of the soul. His role as a fortune-teller and a diviner of hidden treasure – intended to use the deadly sin of covetousness to lure souls to their damnation – is also a challenge to and an inversion of the omniscience of God, and hence of Christ.

After seven years with the devil, Mariken is homesick, and Moenen allows her to return to Nijmegen to see her friends and family. The Play of Masscheroen is being performed in the square as they arrive. It is a souls' judgement play, with actors representing Christ ("God") and Our Lady as well as the devil. In this sense the play-within-the-play is also an "incarnation" of both good and evil. While Mariken wants to watch this play, recalling her uncle's comment that it is better than many a sermon [718], Moenen's counter-suggestion is "Ke, ga wi biden roost ende biden wine" [715] – possibly intended as a quotidien inversion of the symbolic bread and wine of the Eucharist, which in the Mass become the flesh and blood of the incarnated Christ, thus communicating the divine nature to humanity (CE V 573).

The sacrament of Penance, which is a major theme of the play, is presented explicitly, rather than in inversion, in two areas of the text – in Mariken's tears [858] and contrition [809] at the Play of Masscheroen (in which it is Masscheroen, rather than Moenen, who represents the demonic, although Moenen provides a commentary on Mariken's response and his own waning influence) and in the lengthy final section, where Mariken's priestly uncle, having exorcised the devil, takes her on a pilgrimage in search of absolution, and Moenen is reduced to frustrated impotence. The powers conferred on Moenen by his servitude to Lucifer may thus be seen as an inversion of the uncle's special consecration to God in Holy Orders. The exorcism literally unmasks Moenen as a devil, transforming him from the suavely compelling gentleman-scholar into a violent and at times ludicrous monster, mouthing obscenities and making vociferous but ultimately empty threats, while growing increasingly fearful of Lucifer's punishment of his failure. Moenen's failure and fear may be contrasted with the incarnated Christ's willing and successful fulfilment of his Father's design.

While the last of the sacraments, Extreme Unction (the anointing of the sick), is not presented in any way in the parts of the play relating to Mariken, it may be seen as represented in inversion by the death-scene of Mariken's aunt. Here, a devil (possibly Moenen) expresses sympathy with her at her political disappointment, in order to encourage her to commit suicide, at the same time informing the audience (in much the same way as Moenen throughout the play) that souls such as hers all belong to Lucifer and to hell. Much of the discourse in this scene echoes the earlier scene of Mariken's temptation by Moenen, thus creating a comparison between the two women, as (potential) victims of the devil's wiles. The aunt serves as an object lesson to the audience of what Mariken could become. Interestingly enough, just as the human enemies of the incarnated Christ do not recognise him as anything other than a human being, those who are to be the victims of the devil incarnated in human form – whether the aunt in this scene or the hundreds of victims of Moenen's wiles in Hertogenbosch and Antwerp – are equally unable to recognise him as demonic. This is, of course, an important aspect of his power, and it is all the more effective because of his own constant reminders to the audience of the demonic nature which his costume and his demeanour conceal from his intended victims.

Several issues relating to the eschatological powers of Good and Evil, as well as to the perceived power of certain names and words, have been raised in the foregoing discussion. Before focusing on the issue of gendered power, I should like to consider two further instances of the triumph of the power of Good over that of Evil in the dramatic context, namely Mariken's miraculous survival after Moenen attempts to kill her by dropping her from a great height, and the exorcism of Moenen which follows.

The miraculous survival may presumably be taken as more performative – although the text as we have it is not strictly dramatic, one cannot imagine a production failing to present a miracle as impressive as this, presumably by means of wires, harnasses and perhaps the temporary substitution of a "dummy" in the fall. Yet the physical miracle, though impressive, is not ultimately the main thrust of the story : it is the spiritual "miracle" of Mariken's contrition and forgiveness which constitutes the actual focus of the plot, and this "miracle" is made possible only by the Passion of Christ, which would have been meaningless if his Incarnation had not made him fully human and thus capable of suffering, as well as fully divine and thus capable of redeeming humanity. Hence, it would seem, the need to include the lengthy final section of the text dealing with events which lend themselves less easily to performance : Mariken's long pilgrimage in search of absolution, the concluding information about her life of penance as a nun and her miraculous release from that penance, as well as her eventual holy death.

In the case of Moenen's exorcism, it is noteworthy that the text provides no actual prayers, rituals or formulae to be used by Mariken's priestly uncle in exorcising the devil; he simply mentions that he has some lines on a piece of paper in his breviary which will deal with Moenen. The effect is instant: Moenen's own words in his next speech indicate that the exorcism has taken place, that the devil's power has been broken, and that his transformation from human "incarnation" back to his real demonic form has been effected.

In terms of the issue of power, it is significant that in Moenen's very first appearance, he noted that it was Mariken's words (spoken in despair) which had summoned him to action ("Dat woert werdt mi die siele weerdich" [157]), while his exorcism, too, is accomplished by means of (written and spoken) words. Words are thus responsible for both his human "incarnation" and his unmasking as a devil. And, clearly, the power of the word can operate either to good or to evil effect, just as in the dichotomy between the willingly filial divine Logos and the rebellious angelic "Non serviam".

Unlike Christ in his incarnation, Moenen was never fully human; unlike Christ in his divinity, Moenen was never completely possessed of power. The miracle of Mariken's survival demonstrates his loss of power over her body, while the exorcism visibly strips him of both his human disguise and the last vestiges of his hold over her soul. By her next "rite of passage" through the sacrament of Penance Mariken is fully restored to the unity with the incarnated Christ which her original baptism, confirmation and communion had achieved before the powers of evil and a devil incarnate entered her life.

This brings us to the fascinating issue of gendered power, which will constitute the final focus of this paper. The powers of Good and Evil are traditionally viewed as a binary opposition, often associated with male and female, respectively. Yet in Mariken van Nieumeghen both Good and Evil are, ultimately, male powers, striving for possession of the soul of a female creature. The priest and the Pope are the obvious and overtly male representatives of Good. Moenen, incarnated as a male, and serving Lucifer who is described in male terms as his "master", figures obviously on the side of Evil, but even the aunt who abandons Mariken to the power of the devil (and ultimately dooms herself by committing a devil-assisted suicide) employs a discourse which may be viewed as male-associated in both its political and its sexual aspects, the latter being strongly reminiscent of Tertullian and Jerome.

Throughout Mariken van Nieumeghen, in addition to the traditional operation of the powers of Good and Evil, there has been another type of power at work: the power of the construction of Mariken's identity by means of these forces. The plot, then, involves the construction of a female identity by means of male, or male-associated powers. This identity is progressively constructed: by Mariken's uncle in her innocent youth, then by her aunt's allegations of unchastity, then by Moenen's powers and demands, and finally by her uncle, once again, and the Pope. Mariken thus undergoes a performative "incarnation": as Virgin, as Whore, as Witch, and finally as a Wonder (the latter in her miraculous survival of the fall and the equally miraculous removal of her penitential rings).

In each of these "incarnations" Mariken's identity is constructed out of images from the authoritative discourse of the Church, whether the Bible, the Commentaries, or other writings: as Virgin she emulates Our Lady; as Whore she is a second Eve; as Witch she fits the descriptions given in the Malleus Maleficarum, and as Wonder she is associated with Mary Magdalen, the repentant sinner. In none of these verbally-derived and imposed "incarnations" is there an authentic, autonomous female identity: time and time again, for good or evil purposes, the power of discourse is used to impose a male-defined identity on Mariken – an imposed identity from which she may ultimately be seen to escape only in the dream which raises her from the "hell" of her life of patriarchally defined penance to the "heaven" of real forgiveness by God. Thus, just as the devil’s human disguise may be seen as an inversion of the Incarnation of Christ (the divine Word), and his modus operandi in the world as an inversion of the Church’s system of sacramental power, Mariken’s progressive "incarnations" are achieved by means of discourse, of words, valorised or demonised by the power of the Church.

In Mariken van Nieumeghen, then, we have a particularly finely crafted example of the conjoined influence of theological and "folk" beliefs on the medieval mentality. Specifically, the technique of inversion (in word or deed) is applied to very complex theological issues such as the Incarnation and the Fall and transformation of the angelic hierarchy into the demonic, as well as to highly systematic aspects of Church practice such as the seven sacraments, which are used, along with superstitions about the modus operandi and appearance of devils and the presumed malpractices of witchcraft, to structure a miracle play that is as entertaining in its vivid rendering of the quotidien (complete with tavern scene and pageant) as it is compelling in its presentation of religious truths about the forces of Good and Evil, and the inevitable human course of temptation, sin, and salvation.

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